De eerste machinerieën - Revision history

ElenaS at 09:37, 24 April 2023

2023-04-24T09:37:28Z

ElenaS: Created page with "NEDERLANDS ''Machines were an essential part of the staging of Greek dramas, enabling changes of scene. Wagons and revolves were used to bring a dramatic tableau onto the sta..."

2023-04-24T08:33:31Z

Created page with "NEDERLANDS ''Machines were an essential part of the staging of Greek dramas, enabling changes of scene. Wagons and revolves were used to bring a dramatic tableau onto the sta..."

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NEDERLANDS

''Machines were an essential part of the staging of Greek dramas, enabling changes of scene. Wagons and revolves were used to bring a dramatic tableau onto the stage, while the rotating ''periaktoi'' created rapid changes of location.''

[[File:IO2 A.01 03.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Plan of Roman theatre with periaktoi, from Vitruvius' De Architectura]]

An ''[[Item:Q627|ekkyklêma]]'' (Q627, from ''ekkuklein'', to roll out) was a wheeled platform or wagon rolled out of the central door of the skene at the back of the stage, bringing a small scene or tableau into view. Some sources suggest there was a variation in which the wagon revolved, to turn the scene onto the stage. The ''ekkyklêma'' was used to bring interior scenes out into the view of the audience, for example murder scenes, which were imagined in the form of living pictures. It was mainly used in tragedies for revealing dead bodies, such as Hippolytus’ dying body in the final scene of Euripides’ play of the same name, or the corpse of Eurydice draped over the household altar in Sophocles’ ''Antigone''. Other uses include the revelation in Sophocles’ Ajax of Ajax surrounded by the sheep he killed whilst under the delusion they were Greeks. The ''ekkyklêma'' was also used in comedy to parody the tragic effect. An example of this is in Aristophanes’ ''Thesmophoriazusae'', when Agathon is wheeled onstage on an ''ekkyklêma'' to enhance the comic absurdity of the scene.

Compared with simply opening the doors or curtain in the ''skene'' to reveal the scene, the ''ekkyklêma'' offered an important benefit. The semi-circular auditorium of the Greek amphitheatre meant the view of the stage for some members of the audience was very much from the side, so the inner space behind the skene would not have been in view. By rolling or turning the ''ekkyklêma'', it ensured all spectators could see it clearly, while the movement of the mechanism added to the sense of revelation. In Greek theatre there was a strict code forbidding violent deaths being acted out on stage, so the ''ekkyklêma'' also provided a permissible means to bring the result of a murder or death onto the stage, with much greater spectacle and dramatic impact than simply having another character report the events.

The Greek theatre did not provide a total, illusionistic stage environment. Locations were generic, and denoted by paintings mounted on the skene that were just one part of the overall stage picture. These pictures were called ''pinakes'' and could be changed between performances ([[Item:Q30663|see story F.01]]). A different technique was used to change the scene during the performance, if that was required: the ''[[Item:Q23827|periaktoi]]'' (Q23827, from the Greek word meaning ‘revolving’ or ‘rotating prisms’ or ‘angular frames’). ''Periaktoi'' were three-sided wooded frames covered with painted canvas – a different scene on each side. The frames were fixed to a central, vertical axis embedded in the stage floor, so they could be turned in order to change the location of the scene. This gave then opportunity of visualising different locations depending on the configurations of the ''periaktoi''.

[[File:IO2 A.01 04.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Stage design with periaktoi by Joseph Furttenbach, in 'Architectura recreationis', Augsburg 1640.]]

[[File:IO2 A.01 05.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

[[File:IO2 A.01 06.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

We don’t have detailed records of the placements and mechanisms of the ''periaktoi'', but some recreations of Greek theatres suggest at least two larger ''periaktoi'' used at the openings on top of the ''logneion proskenion'' on either side of the central opening of the ''skene''. These ''periaktoi'' were housed within the ''skene'' and were probably turned by hand. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio mentioned the ''periaktoi'' in his ten volume ''[[Item:Q466|De Architectura (Q466)]]'' around 13 BCE. In the 5th book he focused on Greek and Roman theatre architecture, where he explained the triangular prisms. In Vitruvius’ floorplan for the Roman theatre, we can see a set of six ''periaktoi'' placed in a vee formation on top of the ''proskenium'' instead of within the building itself. However, whether these were turned by hand or by an interlocking mechanism made of gears and chains is unclear. The 2nd century Greek grammarian Julius Pollux describes the ''periaktoi'' in his dictionary ''The Onomaticon'' which was reprinted in 1502. This together with the first illustrated version of ''De Architectura'', published in 1511, may be the reason why the ''periaktoi'' and many other theatre machines from Antiquity were revived during the Renaissance. Certainly, theatres of the Renaissance made use of ''periaktoi'', interlocked with either ropes or chains to so they could be turned simultaneously, providing the sense of ‘magical’ transformation that was sought.

Rolling and turning mechanisms were used by the Greek theatres of Antiquity. The ingenuity of these devices and the flexibility they present to achieve quick changes of scene means they have been in use through much of the history of theatre staging since. The mechanical principle of the ''periaktoi'' can also be found in modern Trivision billboards, which allows for up to three different messages to be displayed: a modern application of an ancient device.

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-NEDERLANDS
+''Machines waren een essentieel onderdeel van de enscenering van Griekse drama's en maakten het mogelijk om van scène te veranderen. Wagens en draaimolens werden gebruikt om een dramatisch tafereel op het toneel te brengen, terwijl de draaiende "periaktoi" voor snelle veranderingen in locatie zorgde''
-''Machines were an essential part of the staging of Greek dramas, enabling changes of scene. Wagons and revolves were used to bring a dramatic tableau onto the stage, while the rotating ''periaktoi'' created rapid changes of location.''
+[[File:IO2 A.01 03.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Plan van Romeins theater met periaktoi, van  Vitruvius' De Architectura]]
-An ''[[Item:Q627|ekkyklêma]]'' (Q627, from ''ekkuklein'', to roll out) was a wheeled platform or wagon rolled out of the central door of the skene at the back of the stage, bringing a small scene or tableau into view. Some sources suggest there was a variation in which the wagon revolved, to turn the scene onto the stage. The ''ekkyklêma'' was used to bring interior scenes out into the view of the audience, for example murder scenes, which were imagined in the form of living pictures. It was mainly used in tragedies for revealing dead bodies, such as Hippolytus’ dying body in the final scene of Euripides’ play of the same name, or the corpse of Eurydice draped over the household altar in Sophocles’ ''Antigone''. Other uses include the revelation in Sophocles’ Ajax of Ajax surrounded by the sheep he killed whilst under the delusion they were Greeks. The ''ekkyklêma'' was also used in comedy to parody the tragic effect. An example of this is in Aristophanes’ ''Thesmophoriazusae'', when Agathon is wheeled onstage on an ''ekkyklêma'' to enhance the comic absurdity of the scene.
+De ''ekkyklêma'' bood een belangrijk voordeel ten opzichte van het eenvoudig openen van de deuren of het gordijn in de ''skene'' om de scène te onthullen. Door de halfronde zaal van het Griekse amfitheater was het zicht op het toneel voor sommige toeschouwers vooral vanaf de zijkant, waardoor de binnenruimte achter de skene niet zichtbaar was. Door de ''ekkyklêma te rollen of te draaien, konden alle toeschouwers het duidelijk zien, terwijl de beweging van het mechanisme bijdroeg tot het gevoel van openbaring. In het Griekse theater was er een stricte code die verbood dat gewelddadige sterfgevallen op het toneel werden nagespeeld, dus de ''ekkyklêma'' was een geoorloofd middel om een moord of dood op het toneel te brengen, met een veel groter spektakel en een veel grotere dramatische impact dan wanneer een personage de gebeurtenissen zou melden.
-Compared with simply opening the doors or curtain in the ''skene'' to reveal the scene, the ''ekkyklêma'' offered an important benefit. The semi-circular auditorium of the Greek amphitheatre meant the view of the stage for some members of the audience was very much from the side, so the inner space behind the skene would not have been in view. By rolling or turning the ''ekkyklêma'', it ensured all spectators could see it clearly, while the movement of the mechanism added to the sense of revelation. In Greek theatre there was a strict code forbidding violent deaths being acted out on stage, so the ''ekkyklêma'' also provided a permissible means to bring the result of a murder or death onto the stage, with much greater spectacle and dramatic impact than simply having another character report the events.
+Het Griekse theater bood geen totale, illusionistische toneelomgeving. Locaties wren algemeen en werden aangeduid door schilderijen op de sokkel die slechts een deel van het totale toneelbeeld vormden. Deze afbeeldingen werden ''pinakes'' genoemd en konden tussen de voorstellingen worden veranderd ([[Item:Q30663|zie verhaal F.01]]). Een andere techniek werd gebruikt om de scène tijdens de voorstelling te veranderen, indien nodig, de ''[[Item:Q23827|periaktoi]]'' (Q23827, van het Griekse woord dat 'draaiende' of 'roterende prisma's' of 'hoekige frames' betekent). ''Periaktoi'' waren driezijdige houten frames bedekt met beschilderd doek - aan elke zijde een ander tafereel. De frames waren bevestigd aan een centrale, vertical as in de toneelvloer, zodat ze konden worden gedraaid om de plaats van de scène te veranderen. Dit gaf de mogelijkheid om verschillende locaties te visualiseren, afhankelijk van de configuraties van de ''periaktoi''.
-The Greek theatre did not provide a total, illusionistic stage environment. Locations were generic, and denoted by paintings mounted on the skene that were just one part of the overall stage picture. These pictures were called ''pinakes'' and could be changed between performances ([[Item:Q30663|see story F.01]]). A different technique was used to change the scene during the performance, if that was required: the ''[[Item:Q23827|periaktoi]]'' (Q23827, from the Greek word meaning ‘revolving’ or ‘rotating prisms’ or ‘angular frames’). ''Periaktoi'' were three-sided wooded frames covered with painted canvas – a different scene on each side. The frames were fixed to a central, vertical axis embedded in the stage floor, so they could be turned in order to change the location of the scene. This gave then opportunity of visualising different locations depending on the configurations of the ''periaktoi''.
+[[File:IO2 A.01 04.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Ontwerp van het podium met periaktoi door Joseph Furttenbach, in 'Architectura recreationis', Augsburg 1640.]]
 [[File:IO2 A.01 05.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]
@@ Line 18: / Line 16: @@
 [[File:IO2 A.01 06.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]
-We don’t have detailed records of the placements and mechanisms of the ''periaktoi'', but some recreations of Greek theatres suggest at least two larger ''periaktoi'' used at the openings on top of the ''logneion proskenion'' on either side of the central opening of the ''skene''. These ''periaktoi'' were housed within the ''skene'' and were probably turned by hand. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio mentioned the ''periaktoi'' in his ten volume ''[[Item:Q466|De Architectura (Q466)]]'' around 13 BCE. In the 5th book he focused on Greek and Roman theatre architecture, where he explained the triangular prisms. In Vitruvius’ floorplan for the Roman theatre, we can see a set of six ''periaktoi'' placed in a vee formation on top of the ''proskenium'' instead of within the building itself. However, whether these were turned by hand or by an interlocking mechanism made of gears and chains is unclear. The 2nd century Greek grammarian Julius Pollux describes the ''periaktoi'' in his dictionary ''The Onomaticon'' which was reprinted in 1502. This together with the first illustrated version of ''De Architectura'', published in 1511, may be the reason why the ''periaktoi'' and many other theatre machines from Antiquity were revived during the Renaissance. Certainly, theatres of the Renaissance made use of ''periaktoi'', interlocked with either ropes or chains to so they could be turned simultaneously, providing the sense of ‘magical’ transformation that was sought.
+We hebben geen gedetailleerde gegevens over de plaats en het mechanisme van de ''periaktoi'', maar sommige reconstructies van Griekse theaters suggereren minstens twee grotere ''periaktoi'' bij de openingen bovenop het ''logneion poskenion'' aan weerszijden van de centrale opening van de ''skene''. Deze ''periaktoi'' bevonden zich binnenin de ''skene'' en werden hoogstwaarschijnlijk handmatig gedraaid. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio vernoemde de ''periaktoi'' in zijn tiendelige ''[[Item:Q466|De Architectura (Q466)]]'' rond 13 v.C. In het 5de boek richtte hij zich op de Griekse en Romeinse theaterarchitectuur, waar bij de driehoekige prisma's uitlegde. In Vitruvius' plattegrond voor het Romeinse theater zien we een set van zes ''periaktoi'' die in een v-formatie bovenop het ''proskenium'' zijn geplaatst in plaats van in het gebouw zelf. Het is echter onduidelijk of deze met de hand werden gedraaid of door een in elkaar grijpend mechansime van tandwielen en kettingen. de Griekse grammaticus Julius Pollux uit de 2de eeuw beschrijft de ''periaktoi'' in zijn woordenboek ''De Onomatican'' dat in 1502 werd herdrukt. samen met de eerste geïllustreerde versie van ''De Architectura'', gepubliceerd in 1511, kan dit de reden zijn waarom de ''periaktoi'' en vele andere theatermachines uit de Oudheid tijdens de Renaissance nieuw leven werd ingeblazen. De theaters van de Renaissance maakten zeker gebruik van ''periaktoi'', die met touwen of kettingen aan elkaar vastwaten zodat ze tegelijkertijd konden worden rondgedraaid, wat het gewenste gevoel van ''magische'' transformatie gaf.
-Rolling and turning mechanisms were used by the Greek theatres of Antiquity. The ingenuity of these devices and the flexibility they present to achieve quick changes of scene means they have been in use through much of the history of theatre staging since. The mechanical principle of the ''periaktoi'' can also be found in modern Trivision billboards, which allows for up to three different messages to be displayed: a modern application of an ancient device.
+De Griekse theaters uit de Oudheid maakten gebruik van rol-en draaimechanismen. Het vernuft van deze apparaten en de flexibiliteit die zij boden om snel van scène te veranderen, hebben ervoor gezorgd dat zij sindsdien een groot deel van de geschiedenis van het theater in gebruik zijn. Het mechanische principe van de ''periaktoi'' is ook terug te vinden in moderne Trivision-billboards, waarmee tot drie verschillende boodschappen kunnen worden weergegeven: een moderne toepassing van een oud apparaat.